Sustainable Tourism Development

This article was downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 On 22 borderland 2013, At 0728 Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number 1072954 Registered office Mortimer Ho hold, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK diary of sustainable encumbranceistry Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information http//www. tandfonline. com/loi/rsus20 A theoretical account of Approaches to sustainable touristry Jackie Clarke Version of record set-back published 29 Mar 2010.To cite this article Jackie Clarke (1997) A Frame naturalise of Approaches to sustainable touristry, Journal of sustainable tourism, 53, 224-233 To link to this article http//dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09669589708667287 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full endpoints and conditions of use http//www. tandfonline. com/page/ terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. 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Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 butt against 2013 A manikin of Approaches to Sustainable tourism Jackie ClarkeSchool of Business, Oxford Brooks University, Wheatley Campus, Wheatley, Oxford OX33 1HX Based on an extensive literature review, this paper proposes a theoretical account of approaches to sustainable touristry. The model is composed of four vistas, chronologically sequenced concord to the dominant thought of sustainable touristry as a ownership or closing. The grades be those of diametric contrarys, continuum, movement and convergence. The framework offers insights into the relegatement of the sustainable tourism concept and enables identification of an authors approach to the concept. Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 institution The understanding of sustainable tourism has developed from the early is it or isnt it sustainable tourism debate, to the acceptance that research energy should be channelled into practical ways of assisting all forms of tourism to move towards sustainability. The complete difference is the assumption of the former, that sustainable tourism is, in some manner, already a possession of received types of tourism or situation, against the acknowledgement of the latter, that sustainable tourism is not an indwelling characteristic of a ny existent form or situation, but a close that all tourism essential strive to achieve.The grand volume of output on the subject everywhere the last decade (Brown, 1991) has contributed to the recognised ambiguity in terminology (Beioley, 1995 De Kadt, 1990 Lanfant & Graburn, 1992 Murphy, 1994 Pearce, 1992, etc. ) and the surfeit of labels. For example, ecotourism has no unequivocal usage. It has been verbalised as a symbiotic family in the midst of tourism and nature conservation (Farrell & Runyan, 1991 Valentine, 1993), been equated with nature tourism (Boo, 1990), and constructed as a Venn diagram (Buckley, 1993 Wight, 1995). Occasionally, labels be combined to produce hybrids (see, for example, Dernoi, 1988 Wight,l995).As a concept, sustainable tourism is alleviate evolving. A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable tourism Based on a critical literature review of both academic and industry contributions, the proposed framework comprises four positions of understanding of sustainable tourism. These four positions atomic number 18 broadly chronological, reflecting the dominant approach to sustainable tourism and offering insights into the concepts study provide a structure within which an authors approach to the concept may be identified, affording insights for literature reviews.The framework is envisaged as complementary to glacial work (see, for example, Cazes, 1989 Pearce, 1992). As early literature commonly fixed on home plate as the distinguishing feature, this is the unifying motif for the framework. As a 0966-9582/97/03 0224-10 $10. 00/0 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 1997 J. Clarke Vol. 5, No. 3, 1997 224 A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable tourism 225 criterion, musical scale leaf has shifted from an emotive or even antagonistic role to neutral ground. An overview of the framework shows the positions forming two pairs.The first pair regard sustainable tourism as a current possession of a particular scale of tourism, whilst the second pair treat the phenomenon as a determination to be striven for. Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 The first position of polar opposites A term adapted from Pearce (1992), the first, and probably the earliest of the four positions, was that of circumstances tourism and sustainable tourism conceived as polar opposites (see Figure 1). alternate(a) tourism was the popular label for sustainable tourism, mutual exclusion being unexpressed in the term.As a force, sustainable tourism was understood to be pulling away from people tourism, which served as a point of repulsion (for commentary, see Butler, 1991 Cazes, 1989 Krippendorf, 1987 Nash, 1992 Richter, 1987 Travis, 1988 Valentine, 1993). Thus, sustainable tourism and chew tourism were stereotyped as the good and the uncollectible. The negative social and environmental jars experienced at destinations were attributed solely to mass tourism, which was couched in emotive terms much(prenominal) s hard , ghetto, or destructive tourism. Of course, mass tourism similarly related to scale, and the scale of the tourism involved was the principal defining characteristic for the polar opposite approach. Wheeller (199la) summarised scale as the focal point the traveller is preferred to the tourist, the individual to the group, specialist operators rather than the heroic firms, original accommodation to multi-national hotel chains, slight not commodious essentially good versus bad. Wheeller, l991a, authors emphasis) Representing mass tourism, a Director of the Thomson go away Group lampo sensationd the approach by recounting his situation as an ecotourism speaker at a Royal Geographical Society gathering as being rather like a cattle baron addressing a congress of vegetarians. (Brackenbury, 1992 l0) At its most extreme, advocates of option tourism pressed for a total replacement of mass tourism (cited in De Kadt, l990, 1992 Lanfant & Graburn, 1992) and of Cohens (1972) institution alised tourist.Arguably, the position of polar opposites was built by the presentation of mass versus sustainable characteristics in diametrically opposed tables (see, for example, Krippendorf, 1982 WTO, 1989). Such tables were developed into cover notions of bad versus good (see Lane, 1989, 1990). Mass tourism Conceptual barrier Sustainable tourism Figure 1 Position 1 polar opposites 226 Journal of Sustainable tourism Thus the earliest understanding of sustainable tourism was wholeness of a dichotomised position.Believers in the polar opposite approach clearly regarded sustainable tourism as a possession of an brisk type of tourism based on small scale characteristics. Ownership was claimed by tourism forms opposed to mass tourism. In short, small was synonymous with sustainable. Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 The second position of a continuum By the 1990s, the original position of polar opposites was generally rejected as unproductive, but the notion of a continuum between sustainable tourism and mass tourism presented a flexible adaptation of the originally ideas (see Figure 2).In recognition that sustainable tourism utilised the infrastructure, transport and reservation systems of mass tourism (see De Kadt, 1990, 1992 Krippendorf, 1987 Wheeller, l991a), spawned an accompanying tourism industry structure (see Cohen, 1987, 1989 Krippendorf, 1987), and had the potential to develop into mass tourism if not properly managed (Butler, 1990, 1992 touristry Concern, 1992), the simplicity of polar opposites was adjusted to a continuum between the two extremes. Variations were appropriately placed along the spectrum (see, for example, Davidson, 1992).Although allowing some measure of degree, the continuum understanding of sustainable tourism still regarded the phenomenon as a possession and used scale as the defining criterion. Polar opposites and continuum therefore create a natural pair. However, the continuum approach to sustainable t ourism was only ever loosely established understanding was moving in a new direction. Mass tourism Sustainable tourism Figure 2 Position 2 continuum Criticisms too simple, too impractical Criticisms and queries have been voiced over these early approaches to sustainable tourism.The idea of polar opposites representing right and wrong was denounced as grossly misleading (Butler, 1990). Most criticisms related to one or both of the following Too simple the inadequate appreciation of tourism as a dynamic and complex phenomenon resulting in the inherent flaws in this understanding of sustainable tourism. Too impractical the movement of scale and the inability of this narrow view of sustainable tourism to offer practical solutions to the global job of the burgeoning volume of tourist arrivals.tourism is a complex and dynamic phenomenon (Heath & Wall, 1992 Przeclawski, 1993), yet sustainable tourism from the polar opposite and continuum positions assumed a homogeneity and simplicity i n conflict with reality (Cooper et al. , 1993). Faced with the dramatic developing in international tourism from the 25 million trips of 1950 (WTO, 1993) to the 531 million of 1994 (WTO, 1995a) and its continued predicted growth (WTO, l995b), the replacement of mass tourism with the sustainable tourism promoted by the two positions was illogical. Being small scale, sustainable tourism lacked the capability (Butler,A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable tourism 227 Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 1990 Cohen, 1987 Cooper et al. , 1993 Fennell & Smale, 1992 Pearce, 1992). Sustainable tourism could neither manage the number of arrivals nor replace the economic benefits accrued (Butler, 1992 Cohen, 1987). For Wheeller (1990, l991a, l991b), the idea was a little solution struggling with a macro line. Further more than, this understanding was inward-looking, failing to recognise the importance of other industry sectors and the wider perspective of sustainable dev elopment (Hunter, 1995).Indeed, the second pair of positions better demonstrate the influence of the sustainable development landmarks that shaped the concept (for example, IUCN, 1980, 1991 The founding Commission on Environment and phylogeny, 1987 the GLOBE 90 and 92 conferences The United Nations Conference on Environment and schooling with Agenda 21). Other criticisms concerned issues such as elitism (Cazes, 1989 Richter, 1987), the problems of ensuring local ownership and chair (Cater, 1992), and inbalances in power (Wheeller, 1990, l991a, l991b).Butler (1990) argued that the approach to sustainable tourism portrayed a static picture of impacts. The revision of features related to time and process produced a less(prenominal) flattering scenario (Butler, 1990). For example, the more intense contact between host and guest over a longer duration resulted in greater damage to the fragile host culture than was readily apparent in the good versus bad tables. The emergence of these tables was partly a response to an over-simplistic interpretation of Krippendorfs work (1982, 1987). Krippendorf (1987) was not opposed to mass tourism as long as it progressed towards harmonious tourism.In fact, he urged that only if we succeed in nutriment with tourism as a mass phenomenon, ? , can we claim to have made a decisive step forward, (Krippendorf, 1982 111, authors emphasis) an assertion often overlooked by proponents of a polar opposite or continuum approach. The third position of movement Criticisms of the earlier understandings of sustainable tourism, coupled with a closer confederation to sustainable development, resulted in the demand to change mass tourism to more sustainable forms (see, for example, Bramwell, 1991 Butler, 1990, 1991 Cohen, 1987 De Kadt, 1990 GLOBE, 1990 EIU, 1992).If the main problem of modern tourism is that of its huge number, (Krippendorf, 1987 42, authors emphasis) then mass tourism was the most clear and sensible candidate for initial r eform. The sustainable tourism as understood under movement differed from the earlier definitions of sustainable tourism on three key dimensions The issue of scale became more objective and less emotive. Mass tourism became the subject for improvement, rather than the derided villain. Sustainable tourism became the goal for attainment, rather than the possession of an existing scale of tourism. Operationalising current knowledge to move towards the goal became the 228 Journal of Sustainable touristry (mass tourism) Large scale tourism Sustainable Tourism Goal Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 Figure 3 Position 3 movement practical focus of effort, rather than the is it or isnt it sustainable tourism debate of previous years. Figure 3 illustrates the understanding of sustainable tourism by movement advocates. As a label, large scale tourism is preferred to mass tourism, for it sheds the negative connotations.Viewed objectively, large scale tourism possesses stre ngths which could be used to advantage The environment is attacked by other industries, such as mining and manufacturing (EIU, 1992 McKercher, 1993), and tourism is dependent on environmental quality. The tourism industry must comfort its assets size is important, as large players exert pressure through lobbying power. Large scale operators have the marketing and communication skills, plus contact opportunities in bulk, to actively foster interest in sustainable tourism amongst the millions of consumers who purchase their products. Large size confers influence over suppliers and distributors, which could be used as a glib-tongued force for the introduction of sustainable policies along the supply chain. Of course, there are less altruistic reasons for large scale tourism to instigate movement towards the sustainable tourism goal. The imposition of environmental regulatory control by governments grappling with world problems of acid rain, ozone layer depletion and global warming require a nominal response of compliance.From the demand side, the rise of consumer interest in green issues (see ETB, 1992a, 1992b Green, 1990) provides the classic incentive of consumer needs. The interest expressed by consumers through financial institutions in environmental practices is a further motive. There are over thirty an ag em en im ts pa ct ys -e as nv ses tem iro nm s s re ent men use t al Guid , re au eline cyc di s for le, red t susta uce inab le to urism righteousness Company/organisation focus ta lm s pac im cts al pa lob G im al sic y ph al/ gic olo Ec (sustainable tourism) Small scale tourism iro nm en En v -e nv iro nm e nt al A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 229 Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 environmental or honourable funds in the United Kingdom, representing approximately ? 750 million of investment according to independent financial advisors Holden Meehan (1994), the idea of profit with principle has moved from the fringe to the mainstream.Investors are stakeholders requiring satisfaction. There are many examples of large scale tourism proactively moving towards the goal of sustainable tourism (see Middleton & Hawkins, 1993, 1994 WTTERC, 19911994). British Airways was one of the first tourism companies to publish an environmental report (British Airways, 1991), the planetary Hotels Environment Initiative was a sector-specific working class ( wagon train Praag, 1992), whilst the Green Globe programme was targeted across the tourism sectors (WTTERC, 1994).The World Travel & Tourism Council, a union of Chief Executive Officers from international tourism companies, established the World Travel & Tourism Environment explore sum of money (WTTERC) to monitor, assess and communicate objectives, strategies and action programmes in respect of environmental management (WTTERC, 1992). Over one hundred guidelines and codes of practice relating to tourism were identified (WTTERC, 1993) the environment al guidelines of the WTTERC itself provide a useful synopsis of the large scale understanding of sustainable tourism (WTTERC, 1992).As Figure 3 demonstrates, the focus of this approach is on the corporeal/ecological environment, with an emphasis on environmental management systems, incorporating techniques such as environmental audited accounts of products, processes and issues, and environmental impact assessments. The fourth position of convergence The framework culminates in a position of convergence (see Figure 4). This position represents the latest understanding of sustainable tourism as a goal that all tourism, regardless of scale, must strive to achieve (see, for example, Inskeep, 1991).Accepting that the concept of sustainable tourism is still evolving, the absence of a precise goal definition is less important than general movement in the correct direction. Appreciating the wider role of sustainable development, this terminal position recognises two interpretations of su stainable tourism. The large scale interpretation of sustainable tourism (as portrayed in position three) has a dominantly physical/ecological perspective expressed as a business orientation. The small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism offers a social slant from a local or destination platform.It is akin to the understanding of sustainable tourism as alternative tourism under position one, except for the crucial recognition of the concept as a goal rather than a possession. both interpretations focus on the implementation of their current knowledge of sustainable tourism to move towards the ultimate goal of sustainability seek future progress towards the desired goal through the twin processes of further development of ideas inherent in their own interpretation and by adaptation of ideas found in the other.Together, this results in convergence towards the goal of sustainable tourism. For example, in this quest, large scale tourism is experimenting with techniques for ind ucing shifts in tourist behaviour matched with environmentallyfriendly travel, an educational component instigated by the small scale enterprises. Thomsons now provide environmental guidelines for guests TUI 230 Journal of Sustainable Tourism Downloaded by 113. 210. 1. 106 at 0728 22 March 2013 Large scale tourism al nm vi ro En Figure 4 Position 4 convergence ave produced an environment rank for products featured in all their mainstream Euro-brochures. In turn, small scale enterprises are learning about the development of effective environmental management systems, originally the territory of large scale organisations. In the UK, the environmental audit was promoted for small scale concerns by the due west Country phaeton Boards (1993) Green canvass Kit the project was then taken nationwide. In addition, by embracing sustainable development, both interpretations are receptive to further ideas generated from outside the tourism sector.Like large scale tourism (see position three) , the small scale interpretation of sustainable tourism has produced guidelines and codes of good practice (see, for example, ETB, 1991 Countryside Commission, 1991 Green, 1990), established destination-based projects (for example, the Devon-based Tarka Project) and offered and disseminated advice to interested parties (ETB, 1992a, 1992b, 1993). -e nv iro nm en ta l en t im g olo Ec m an ag em y ph al/ ic al sic en ts pa ct ys -e as nv s e s te m ir o nm sm s re en use tal ent Guid , re au eline cyc s for le, r dit sust edu aina ce ble t ouri sm Equity Company/organisation focus ba Gl p l im s act p im Sustainable Tourism Goal ts ac Local area identity focus Equity Guid e Loc lines for al c sust ont aina Ed rol ble t uc ouri ati To sm on u of Au ris hos tc th t/to e n ha r uri tic act st ity eri s ti cs s act ts mp pac y al i rit ultur l im a c teg loc In o cial/ tion/ a S stin De Small scale tourism A Framework of Approaches to Sustainable Tourism 231 The unblemished framework Ta ken as a whole, the framework both structures and partially explains some of the conflicts and debates that have occurred in sustainable tourism.Although due regard should be given to the limitations of a framework based purely on a literature review and purporting to be complementary in nature rather than encompassing, it does present insights to past(a) development whilst taking a view as to the direction of future advances. 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